Vijayanagara

Vijaynagar Architecture

The Vijaynagar rulers produced a new style of architecture called as Provida style. The large number and prominence of pillars and piers are  some of the distinct features. Horse was the most common animal on the pillars. Another important feature was the Mandapa or open pavilion with a raised platform, meant for seating deities.Important temples were Vithalswami and Hazara temples at Hampi, Tadapatri and Parvati temples at Chidambaramand Varadraja and Ekambarnatha temples at Kanchipuram. The Vijaynagar rulers inscribed the stories of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata on the walls of the various temples. Hazara temple and Vithalswami temples are examples of this type of wall inscription.

Two Portuguese visitors namely Nunez and Paes had visited the Vijayanagar empire and have described their experience, which are the basic source of our information.

-Krishana Devaraya assumed the title of Abhinav Bhoja and established political treatise Anuktamalyamada which deals with the welfare of the people.
Vijayanagara and Bahmani Sultans fought frequently for control over Raichur Doab

The persian ambassador who visited Vijayanagara empire in 1443 was Abdur Rajak

Krishnadevaraya was the emperor of the Vijayanagara Empire from 1509 to 1530.[2] He was the third ruler of the Tuluva Dynasty. Presiding over the empire at its zenith, he is regarded as an icon by many Indians. Krishna Deva Raya earned the titles Kannada Rajya Rama Ramana (lit, "Lord of the Kannada empire"), Andhra Bhoja and Mooru Rayara Ganda (lit, "King of three Kings"). He became the dominant ruler of the peninsula of India by defeating the Sultans of Bijapur, Golconda, the Bahmani Sultanate and the Raja of Odisha. The great south Indian mathematician Nilakantha Somayaji also lived in the Empire of Krishnadevaraya.[3] He was the most powerful of all the Hindu rulers of India at that time.[4] Indeed, when the Mughal Babur was taking stock of the potentates of north India, Krishnadevaraya was rated the most powerful and had the most extensive empire in the subcontinent.[5]

Portuguese travellers Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz also visited the Vijayanagara Empire during his reign. Krishna Deva Raya benefited from the able prime minister Timmarusu, who was regarded by the emperor as a father figure and was responsible for his coronation. Krishna Deva Raya was the son of Tuluva Narasa Nayaka,[6]an army commander under Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya, who later took control of the empire to prevent its disintegration and became the founder of the Tuluva Dynasty, the third Hindu Dynasty to rule Vijayanagara. The emperor's coronation took place on the birthday of Hindu God Krishna. He built a beautiful suburb near Vijayanagara called Nagalapura.The king was of medium height, had a cheerful disposition, and was reputed to be respectful to foreign visitors, ruthless in maintaining the law, and prone to fits of anger. He maintained himself to a high level of physical fitness through daily exercises. Travelogues indicate that the king was not only an able administrator, but also an excellent general, leading from the front in battle and even attending to the wounded. The Telugu poet Mukku Timmana Nandi Thimmana praised him as the destroyer of the Turks.[7]

Sri vijaya and chola and pala

Throughout most of their shared history, ancient India and Indonesia enjoyed friendly and peaceful relations, therefore this Indian invasion is a unique event in Asian history. In 9th and 10th centuries, Srivijaya maintained close relations with the Pala Empire in Bengal, and an 860 Nalanda inscription records that Maharaja Balaputra of Srivijaya dedicated a monastery at the Nalanda university in Pala territory. The relation between Srivijaya and the Chola dynasty of southern India was friendly during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I. In 1006 CE a Srivijayan Maharaja from Sailendra dynasty — king Maravijayattungavarman — constructed the Chudamani Vihara in the port town of Nagapattinam.[14] However, during the reign of Rajendra Chola I the relations deteriorated as the Cholas attacked Srivijayan cities.[15]

The Cholas are known to have benefitted from both piracy and foreign trade. Sometimes Chola seafaring led to outright plunder and conquest as far as Southeast Asia.[16] While Srivijaya that controlled two major naval choke points; Malacca and Sunda Strait; at that time was a major trading empire that possess formidable naval forces. Malacca strait's northwest opening was controlled from Kedah on Peninsula side and from Pannai on the Sumatran side, while Malayu (Jambi) and Palembang controlled its southeast opening and also Sunda strait. They practiced naval trade monopoly that forced any trade vessels that passed through their waters to call on their ports or otherwise being plundered.

The reasons of this naval expedition are unclear with Nilakanta Sastri suggesting that the attack was probably caused by Srivijayan attempt to throw obstacles in the way of the Chola trade with the East (especially China), or more probably, a simple desire on the part of Rajendra to extend his digvijaya to the countries across the sea so well known to his subject at home, and therefore add luster to his crown.[17] Another theory suggests that the reasons of the invasion was probably motivated by geopolitics and diplomatic relations. King Suryavarman I of the Khmer Empire requested aid from Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty against Tambralinga kingdom.[18] After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra Chola, the Tambralinga kingdom requested aid from the Srivijaya king Sangrama Vijayatungavarman.[18][19] This eventually led to the Chola Empire coming into conflict with the Srivijaya Empire. This alliance was somewhat also has religious nuance, since both Chola and Khmer empire are Hindu Shivaist, while Tambralinga and Srivijaya are Mahayana Buddhist.

leader of opposition

• GV Mavalankar,First Lok Sabha speaker- he said main opposition party’s strength must equal the quorum
• Since quorum rule =10% of total membership
• Therefore, LoP must be from party with minimum 10% seats.

Leader of Opposition (LoP) in India Parliament

• 1977: The leaders of opposition in Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha were given statutory recognition.
• They provides constructive criticism of the govt. policies.
• Gets same salaries and allowances that are equivalent to a Cabinet minister – paid by the govt.
• To become leader of opposition, a political party needs atleast 10% strength of the house.

• To become leader of opposition, a political party needs atleast 10% strength of the house.

House	total	10% seat means	Who is the LoP?
Rajya Sabha	245	25	Ghulam Nabi Azad. Because Congress got 67 seats.
Lok Sabha	543	55	None because Congi 44, AIADMK 37.

• Congress got only 44 seats in Lok Sabha. Even if you count the whole UPA alliance- its 60 members.
• But LoP is given only to party leader and not to alliance leader.
• Therefore, neither congress nor the UPA leader can be declared as the leader of opposition in Lok Sabha.

C	PM + Home minister + leader of opposition in LS Although 2003 CVC act says, if no LoP then leader of single largest party can be made part of the Committee. But same act also says if vacancy in Committee, still appointment can be done.
CIC	PM + Union minister + Leader of opposition in LS RTI Act says “leader of the single largest party in the Lok Sabha”. (Doesn’t make 10% requirement).
NHRC	PM+ Home minister + speaker of LS + dept. chair of RS + leader of Opposition of LS + leader of Opposition of RS As per Protection of Human rights act 1993.- if vacancy in Committee, still appointment can be done.
Lokpal	PM + CJI +speaker of LS + leader of opposition in LS + eminent jurist Even here, if vacancy in Committee, still appointment can be made as per Lokpal Act 2013.
NJAC	CJI +2 SC judges + law minister + 2 eminent jurist 2 eminent jurist would be recommended by (PM + CJI + leader of opposition in LS)

Syria

The Temple of Bel (Arabic: معبد بل ), sometimes also referred to as the "Temple of Baal", was an ancient temple located in Palmyra, ...

Tripartite chalukya pallava and harsha

Pulkesin II (610–642 CE) is the most celebrated ruler of the Chalukyas of Badami. His birth name was Ereya and he was born to Kirtivarman-I. Since, he was too young when his father died, his paternal uncle Mangaldesa was made the king. Some sources say that his uncle denied him his right to get the throne when he grown up and he rebelled against his uncle. Ereya organized an army near modern Kolar in Karnataka and defeated and killed Mangaldesa (Peddavadagur inscription). He defeated the Kadamabas of the Banavasi, Alupas of modern Southern Karnataka, Maurya of Konkan and after a naval war captured Island of Elephanta from the Mauryas of Konkan. He also defeated the Kosala, Kalinga etc. in the east. In down south, he defeated Mahendravarman-I. This was the time when Harsha was a major power in Northern India. Pulkesin II and Harsha engaged in a battle at the banks of the Narmada. This was a decisive battle in which Harsha lost a big part of his elephant army and had to retreat. This is mentioned in the Aihole Inscription. The same battle has been described by Huen Tsang too. The battle ended with a treaty in which Harsha was made to recognize river Narmada as his southern border. After this victory, Pulkesin II assumed the titles of Parmeshwara, Prithivivallabha, Satyashraya etc. and became the paramount power in modern Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. He also assumed the title of Dakshinpatheshwara around the same time, on the lines of Harsha’s title Uttarpatheshwara. Pulkesin II was also the one of the first kings in South India to issue the Gold Coins. The enmity of Pulkesin II with Pallavas of Kanchi finally took his life in 642 AD, when one of the Pallava Kings (Narsimhamvaraman) plundered his capital and probably put him to death. For next 13 years Pallavas dominated in South India including the Vatapi. Diplomatic Relations with King of Persia The fame of Pulkesin II spread beyond the geographical limits of India and reached the ears of Khusrau II the King of Persia. Khusrau II in 36th year of his reign i.e. 625 AD received a complementary embassy from Pulkesin II. He reciprocated the embassy with a Persian embassy which was welcomed with due honors in India. One of the large Frescoes of Ajanta Paintings in Cave Number 1 vividly represents the ceremonial attending the presentation of their credentials by the Persian Courts. This is a great record of India-Persia relations in those times. Note: The most important literature of the Badami Chalukyas is the Aihole inscription of Pulakesi II written by his court poet Ravikirti in Sanskrit.

Languages

he 4 main South Indian languages are individual languages on their right due to centuries of independent evolution. But, they do have a lot of closeness. The similarities are especially stronger in the east-west axis.

For instance, Malayalam and Tamil share a lot of common culture and shared vocabulary. Both the scripts evolved from the Vatteluttu alphabet. The main difference is that Malayalam has much more Sanskrit influence than Tamil. Thus, a Tamil could easily get by in Kochi/Ernakulam and in the same way a Malayali can get by in southern TN quite easily. Tamil and Malayalam are probably more closer than Bhojpuri & Bengali or Punjabi & Kashmiri.

Kannada and Telugu share even more similarities than other south Indian language pairs.  The script for instance is very close and some vocabulary is shared. They are probably more closer than Hindi & Bhojpuri. One reason was that they often shared rulers. On other hand, present day Karnataka & Tamil Nadu often didn't share rulers. 

Tamil and Telugu do share cultural and linguistic similarities. I was often forced to watch Telugu movies with my family [my mom and aunt can speak/understand Telugu well] and found it quite easy to understand. One Tamil comedy scene involves a comedian saying the only difference between these two languages is the presence of "lu", "du" at the end for Telugu. Of course, it is not that similar, but there exists common vocabulary. 

All the 4 belong to the same language family and see how they are all related:

Some Dravidian languages in different parts of the subcontinent.

Patanjali

The author of the Mahābhāṣya, an ancient treatise on Sanskrit grammar and linguistics, based on the Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini. This Patañjali's life is dated to mid 2nd century BCE by both Western and Indian scholars.[5][6][7] This text was titled as a bhasya or "commentary" on Katyayana-Panini's work by Patanjali, but is so revered in the Hindu traditions that it is widely known simply as Maha-bhasya or "Great commentary". So vigorous, well reasoned and vast is his text, that this Patanjali has been the authority as the last grammarian of classical Sanskrit for 2,000 years, with Panini and Katyayana preceding him. Their ideas on structure, grammar and philosophy of language have also influenced scholars in other Indian religions such as Buddhism and Jainism.[8][9]The compiler of the Yoga sūtras, a text on Yoga theory and practice,[10] and a notable scholar of Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy.[11][12] He is variously estimated to have lived between 5th century BCE to 4th century CE, with more scholars accepting dates between 2nd and 4th century CE.[13][10][14] The Yogasutras is one of the most important texts in the Hindu tradition and the foundation of classical Yoga.[15] It is the Indian Yoga text that was most translated in its medieval era into forty Indian languages.[16]The author of a medical text called Patanjalatantra. He is cited and this text is quoted in many medieval health sciences-related texts, and Patanjali is called a medical authority in a number of Sanskrit texts such as Yogaratnakara, Yogaratnasamuccaya and Padarthavijnana.[17] There is a fourth Hindu scholar also named Patanjali, who likely lived in 8th-century CE and wrote a commentary on Charaka Samhita and this text is called Carakavarttika.[18] According to some modern era Indian scholars such as P.V. Sharma, the two medical scholars named Patanjali may be the same person, but completely different person than the Patanjali who wrote the Sanskrit grammar classic Mahabhasya.[18]

Bond vs stock

The bond market is where investors go to trade (buy and sell) debt securities, prominently bonds. The stock market is a place where investors go to trade (buy and sell) equity securities like common stocks and derivatives (options, futures etc). Stocks are traded on stock exchanges. In the United States, the prominent stock exchanges are: Nasdaq, Dow, S&P 500 and AMEX. These markets are regulated by the Securities Exchange Commission (SEC). 

The differences in the bond and stock market lie in the manner in which the different products are sold and the risk involved in dealing with both markets. One major difference between both markets is that the stock market has central places or exchanges (stock exchanges) where stocks are bought and sold. However, the bond market does not have a central trading place for bonds; rather bonds are sold mainly over-the-counter (OTC). The other difference between the stock and bond market is the risk involved in investing in both. Investing in bond market is usually less risky than investing in a stock market because the bond market is not as volatile as the stock market is.

Read more: What is the difference between the bond market and the stock market? http://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/09/difference-between-bond-stock-market.asp#ixzz4fcR4RVej 
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Niif

Functions of NIIF NIIF will raise funds from investors and markets and would invest the same in companies, institutions and infrastructure projects. It will also provide advisory services. Source of Funds The sources of funds for NIIF are as follows: Government budgetary funds to each AIF set up under NIIF. These funds will be provided every year as required. Private investors. The fund will solicit equity participation from strategic anchor partners. It is also expected to attract overseas investors, PSUs, domestic pension, provident funds and NSSF (National small savings fund) also. The international pension funds and sovereign wealth funds from Singapore, Russia and the UAE have showed interest to invest under the fund. On February 2, 2016, NIIF and Russia’s RUSNANO OJSC have signed an MoU to set up the Russia-India High Technology Private Equity Fund for joint implementation of investments into projects in India.
http://www.gktoday.in/iaspoint/current/national-investment-and-infrastructure-fund/
The objective of NIIF is to maximise economic impact through infrastructure development in viable projects both greenfield and brownfield, including stalled projects, mainly in the core infra sector. Structure NIIF has been structured as a fund of funds and set up as Category II Alternate Investment Fund (AIF) under the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) Regulations. Total corpus of the fund is Rs. 40000 Crore.  The government will invest Rs.20,000 crores into it from budget while the remaining Rs. 20,000 crores are expected to come from private investors. Government stake has been fixed at 49%. This stake structure (49% government, 51% private) will help NIIF to be seen with characters of both sovereign fund as well as private sector. NIIF is a fund of funds. This implies that there would be multiple alternative investment funds underneath the main fund. Examples of such funds include stressed-assets fund, renewable energy fund, brownfield projects fun
http://www.gktoday.in/iaspoint/current/national-investment-and-infrastructure-fund/

Dehradun declaration

DEHRADUN DECLARATION’ has been adopted at the end of two day conference of CSIR Directors held at CSIR-Indian Institute of Petroleum in Dehradun today. It was resolved by Directors of CSIR labs that technologies will be developed for National missions like Swachh Bharat, Swasth Bharat, Skill India, Smart Cities, Digital India, Namami Ganga. It was also decided that CSIR LABS will devise ways to develop industry driven technologies, including game changing technologies. Each laboratory would also develop at least one technology in strategic sector for India. The resolution also declares that all CSIR Institutions will make preparation for Platinum Jubilee celebrations beginning Sept. 2016 

The two days of ‘Chintan Shivir’ held on 12th & 13th June 2015 concluded this evening with all CSIR labs agreeing to make efforts to be self financing in next 2 years. In his concluding remarks the Union Minister for Science & Technology and Earth Sciences Dr. Harsh Vardhan said that CSIR should be a catalytic agent to evolve India into Samarth Bharat-Sashakt Bharat.The Minister said that a revenue model is to be developed in businesslike manner with clear input-output cost analysis. Emphasis will be laid to achieve global standards and to build confidence in society about relevance of CSIR labs in terms of social benefit. Labs will endeavour to build up entrepreneurship in Small, Medium and Big industries. Dr. Harsh Vardhan said that CSIR should focus on developing technologies for improving quality of life of the common man. 

The Minister said that coming months would see each of the laboratory focusing its resources on developing specific lines of inventions which would contribute to the social and economic objectives of the Narendra Modi government for the poor and common man. 

The Union Minister of State for Science & Technology and Earth Sciences Shri Y S Chowdary urged directors of the Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR) to come up with at least 12 cutting edge technologies which are to be commercialized every year. He was addressing the Director’s Conference of CSIR, being held at CSIR-IIP, Dehradun on the second day today. He also emphasized the need for CSIR labs to be self-financing through generating funds by offering technology to Industry. 

The Director-General, CSIR Dr. M.O.Garg and all the Directors of CSIR Institutions across the country attended the two day meeting. 

Each of the laboratory heads made a presentation about his or her respective lab achievements in transferring products and processes developed by him or her to industry. They also disclosed the patents awarded, the skill development programmes carried out, socio-economic interventions made, villages adopted and upgraded and contributions to Swachh Bharat and other Govt. programmes. The success in realizing Royalties and License Fees receipts were also shared with projections made for the next year. 

The “Make in India” and “Innovate in India” visions of the Prime Minister came up for extraordinary focus at the two-day meeting and saw all CSIR heads accept the challenge to provide the Science & Technology research findings as backbone to a great and new manufacturing economy. 

Dr Harsh Vardhan said, “I have full confidence in our scientists. With proper encouragement and focused approach, I am sure India will achieve the status of world’s greatest scientific powerhouse. 

Ambedkar

Mahad Satyagraha was a satyagraha led by B. R. Ambedkar on 20 March 1927 to allow untouchables to use water in a public tank in Mahad (currently in Raigad district), Maharashtra, India.[1] The day (20 March) observed as Social Empowerment day in India.[1]

BackgroundEdit

Bronze sculpture depicting Mahad movement by B R Ambedkar

By the Indian caste system, untouchables (Dalits) were segregated from the casteHindus. They were banned from using water bodies and roads which were used by caste Hindus. On August 1923, Bombay Legislative Council passed a resolution that people from the depressed classes should be allowed to use places which were built and maintained by the Government.[2] In January 1924, Mahad which was part of the Bombay Province passed the resolution in its municipal council to enforce the act. But it was failed to implement because of the protest from the caste Hindus.

SatyagrahaEdit

Flyer published before Mahad Satyagraha in 1927

In 1927, Ambedkar decided to launch a satyagraha (nonviolent resistance) to assert their rights to use water in the public places.[citation needed] His Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha arranged a conference on Holi 19-20 March 1927 in Mahad,[citation needed] in which more than thousand people were gathered. At the end of the conference, they marched to the Chavdar Tale (tasty water lake), the main tank of the town and they drank water from the tank.[3]

Modern painting

influence of European paintings was started during the period of Akbar when he encouraged European, Chinese and south-east paintings. however European paintings influenced grossly during the colonial period i.e. second half of 18th century and 19th century. e.g.-

1] in goa, hybrid style of paintings called ' company art' which included both indian and british. nawab of Arcot had painter european painter fransis for his european painting collections.
2] oil paintings, water colour techniques, use of paper and ivory,etc was now inserted in painting field.
3] europe romantic movement also influened the indian painting by bringing picturesque such as evocative landscape.
4] 'kali ghat paintings' in calcutta [now kolkata] featured lively, brightly coloured mythological and secular subject. one popular feature was depicting bureaucratic red tapism and infamous work.
5]western colleges of art were eastablished at chennai[1850], calcutta[1854], mumbai[1857].most famous painter from india was raja ravi varma who got international recognition in second half of nineteenth century.

however, elite artist engrossed to nationalism in late nineteenth-century. e.g. tagore brother abanindranath and ravindranath tagore. his ' bharat mata' painting become iconic for nationalists.

Shyamji

Shyamji Krishna Varma (4 October, 1857 – 30 March, 1930) was an Indian revolutionary fighter,[1] lawyer and journalist who founded the Indian Home Rule Society, India House and The Indian Sociologist in London. A graduate of Balliol College, Krishna Varma was a noted scholar in Sanskrit and other Indian languages. He pursued a brief legal career in India and served as the Divan of a number of Indian princely states in India.[2] He had, however, differences with Crown authority, was dismissed following a supposed conspiracy of local British officials at Junagadh[3] and chose to return to England. An admirer of Dayanand Saraswati's approach of cultural nationalism, and of Herbert Spencer, Krishna Varma believed in Spencer's dictum: "Resistance to aggression is not simply justified, but imperative".[2]

In 1905 he founded the India House and The Indian Sociologist, which rapidly developed as an organised meeting point for radical nationalists among Indian students in Britain at the time and one of the most prominent centres for revolutionary Indian nationalism outside India. Most famous among the members of this organisation was Veer Savarkar. Krishna Varma moved to Paris in 1907, avoiding prosecution. He died in 1935

ggov

first governor general of independent india -- mount batten
last gov general  c raja gopalachari

bardoli

In 1922, however, a mob of protestors killed some policemen in Chauri Chaura. Fearing a slide into violence and anarchy, Gandhi called for the struggle to be suspended. He was arrested in the same year and sentenced to be imprisoned for six years, but released in 1924. In this struggle, many considered Sardar Patel as the Lord of Bardoli.

The crisis[edit]

In 1925, the taluka of Bardoli in Gujarat suffered from floods and famine, causing crop production to suffer and leaving farmers facing great financial troubles. However, the government of the Bombay Presidency had raised the tax rate by 30% that year, and despite petitions from civic groups, refused to cancel the rise in the face of the calamities. The situation for the farmers was grave enough that they barely had enough property and crops to pay off the tax, let alone for feeding themselves afterwards.^[

Patel then instructed all the farmers of Bardoli taluka to refuse payment of their taxes. Aided by Parikh, Vyas and Pandya, he divided Bardoli into several zones – each with a leader and volunteers specifically assigned. Patel also placed some activists close to the government, to act as informers on the movements of government officials.

Above all, Patel instructed the farmers to remain completely non-violent, and not respond physically to any incitements or aggressive actions from officials. He reassured them that the struggle would not end until not only the cancellation of all taxes for the year, but also when all the seized property and lands were returned to their rightful owners.

Panna dooba

He alleged that the BJP is pushing this project because it wants to get Rajput and Kshatriya votes of Jhansi by promising drinking water. Uma Bharti is a Lodh Rajput.

Second, the river flows 60 to 70 feet lower than the Betwa and at least 30% of the 78 MW that would be generated by the proposed hydro- project would be used for pumping the water up.

Third, India does not need so much hydropower. “India is planning to add 1 lakh MW of solar power. Where is the need for additional hydro-power at huge environmental and social costs?” asked Manoj Misra, who heads the Yamuna Jiye Abhiyaan.

Fourth, the tiger lobby is opposing it because it will submerge 10% of the Panna Tiger Reserve (Ken flows through it) to build the Daudhan Dam on Ken, which will divert the water.

map1

3rd rtc

Third Round Table Conference was held in London on November 17, 1932.

This was just a nominal conference, Congress refused to attend it (not invited, in fact) and in Britain, the Labor party also refused to not to attend it.

So, only 46 people reached out there.

Please note that it was this conference where a college student Chaudhary Rahmat Ali proposed the name of the new land specially carved out from India for the Muslims. The name of this “holy” land was – Pakistan.

Muslim leaders who attended the conference were Muhammad Ali, Agha Khan, Fazlul Haq, Jinnah.

The outcome of the Third Round Table conference was the ” White Paper” issued by the Government. On the basis of this paper, the Government of India Act 1935 was to be passed.

Chauth vs sardeshmuhi

Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were taxes conceived during the times of the Great Maratha Ruler Shivaji Maharaj.
'Chauth' means basically 1/4th i.e 25% of gross revenue or produce to be paid to jagirdars of Maratha empire from hostile or alien state. In return the state paying the tax would get an assuarance of non aggression from the Maratha army against the enemy state. 
'Sardeshmukhi' is an additional 10% tax levied upon the collected 'Chauth'. The reasons for the additional tax was due to the King claiming hereditary rights upon the tax collection. 
The Sardeshmuki directly went to the King's treasury whereas the share of king in Chauth was 1/3rd of the gross Chauth collected

Money bill vs financial bill

A money bill can be introduced / originated only in Lok Sabha {or in legislative assembly in case of bicameral legislature in states}.

A money bill can be introduced only on prior recommendations of the President {or governor in case of state}

A money bill can be a government bill only. No private bill can be a money bill.

Once a money bill is passed in Lok Sabha, it is transmitted to Rajya Sabha for its consideration. But Rajya Sabha has limited powers in this context. It can neither reject nor amend the money bill. It can make only recommendations and has to return the bill with or without recommendations to Lok Sabha in 14 days.

The Lok Sabha may or may not accept the recommendations of Rajya Sabha. Whether or not accepted those recommendations, thus returned bill is considered passed in both houses. If Rajya Sabha does not even return the bill in 14 days, it is considered passed in both houses.

President can withhold assent to money bill but cannot return it for reconsideration of the Lok Sabha.

There is no question of joint sitting in case of money bills because opinion of Rajya Sabha is immaterial in their case.

Example of a money bill is Finance Bill which is introduced with Budget in India. Usually such bill has provisions related to article 110 (1)(a) {imposition, abolition, remission, alteration or regulation of any tax} and is certified as a money bill. It has its endorsement by speaker as money bill and Rajya Sabha has no power to change its fate.

Financial Bill Category-I and Category-II

Sometimes, a bill apart from being a money bill {i.e. having provisions of article 110}, may also have other provisions. Example of such bill is Central Road Fund Bill (now Central Road Fund Act), which proposed to establish a non-lapsable fund to impose cess/tax by the Union Government on the consumption of Petrol and High Speed Diesel to develop and maintain National Highways. This bill contained provisions of not only imposition of taxes but also putting its proceeds in Consolidated Fund and withdrawing the same from it for development of roads. It has other detailed provisions on how it will be used, what will be duties of government etc. etc. Thus, apart from being a money bill, it also has other provisions and thus called Financial Bill of Category-I.

A financial bill of category-I is considered same as Money Bill and introduced in the Lok Sabha on the recommendation of the President.  However once it has been passed by the Lok Sabha, it is like an ordinary Bill and there is no restriction on the powers of the Rajya Sabha on such Bills. Rajya Sabha has powers to reject it and also there is a provision of joint sitting in this case.

A financial bill of category-II is one which although has provisions involving expenditure from Consolidated Fund of India but does not have anything mentioned in article 110. We may take the example of “President’s (Emoluments and) Pension Act” to understand this kind of bill. This bill has provisions that money has to be taken out of the Consolidated Fund to pay salary to president but there is nothing in the bill as per provisions of article 110.

Such a bill is ordinary in all respects and both Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha enjoy equal powers in this bill. However, only special feature of this bill is that recommendation of the President is essential for consideration and passing of these Bills by either House.

Paik revolt

The Paik Rebellion also called the Paika Rebellion was an armed rebellion against the British East India Company's rule in Odisha in 1817. The Paiks rose in rebellion under their leader Bakshi Jagabandhu and, projecting Lord Jagannath as the symbol of Odia unity, the rebellion quickly spread across most of Odisha before being ruthlessly put down by the company's forces.[1]

PaikasEdit

The Paiks were the traditional landed militia of Odisha. They served as warriors and were charged with policing functions during peacetime. The Paiks were organised into three ranks distinguished by their occupation and the weapons they wielded. These were the Paharis, the bearers of shields and the khanda sword, the Banuas who led distant expeditions and used matchlocks and the Dhenkiyas - archers who also performed different duties in Odisha armies.[2] With the conquest of Odisha by the East India Company in 1803 and the dethronement of the Raja of Khurda began the fall of the power and prestige of the Paiks. The attitude of the company to the Paiks was expressed by Walter Ewer, on the commission that looked into the causes of the Rebellion, thus: "Now there is no need of assistance of Paiks at Khurda. It is dangerous to keep them in British armed forces. Thus they should be treated and dealt as common Ryots and land revenue and other taxes should be collected from them. They must be deprived of their former Jagir lands (rent free lands given to the Paiks for their military service to the state.) Within a short period of time the name of Paik has already been forgotten. But still now where the Paiks are living they have retained their previous aggressive nature. In order to break their poisonous teeth the British Police must be highly alert to keep the Paiks under their control for a pretty long period, unless the Paik community is ruined completely the British rule cannot run smoothly."[3]

Causes of the rebellionEdit

The Paik rebellion had several social, economic and political reasons. The Paiks were alienated by the British regime, who took over the hereditary rent-free lands granted to them after the conquest of Khurda. They were also subjected to extortion and oppression at the hands of the company government and its servants. Had conciliatory measures been adopted towards the Paiks from the beginning, it is possible that they would have become a source of strength to the company rule in Odisha.[3] The extortionist land revenue policy of the company affected the peasants and the zamindars alike. A source of much consternation for the common people was the rise in prices of salt due to taxes imposed on it by the new government. The company also abolished the system of cowrie currency that had existed in Odisha prior to its conquest and required that taxes be paid in silver. This caused much popular hardship and discontent. In 1804 the Raja of Khurda planned a rebellion against the British in alliance with the Paiks, but the plot was soon discovered and the Raja's territory 

Majority

Effective Majority of house means more than 50% of the effective strength of the house. This implies that out of the total strength, we deduct the vacant seats. When Indian Constitution mentions “all the then members”, that refers to effective majority.

Also read:  Important Parliamentary Committees in Detail

For example, in Rajya Sabha, out of the total strength of 245 members if there are 45 vacancies, then the effective strength of the house is 200. Then the effective majority is 50% of 200 plus 1, ie 101.

Cases where effective majority is used:

Removal of Vice-president in RS – Article 67(b).
Removal of Speaker and Deputy Speaker in Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assembly.

Absolute majority

It refers to a majority of more than 50% of the total membership of the house. For example, as the total membership of Lok Sabha is 545, absolute majority in Lok Sabha means – 50% of 545 plus 1, ie. 273.

Cases where absolute majority is used: In the normal business of the Parliament or State Legislature absolute majority is not generally used. But this majority is used during general election, for the formation of government at Center and States.

Gandhi in champaran

By dg tendulkar
To mark centenary of gandhi in champaran

Panchayati raj evolution

The panchayati had never been the priority of the British rulers.[3] The rulers were interested in the creation of 'controlled' local bodies, which could help them in their trading interests by collecting taxes for them. When the colonial administration came under severe financial pressure after the 1857 uprising, the sought was decentralization in terms of transferring responsibility for road and public works to local bodies. However, the thrust of this 'compelled' decentralization was with respect to municipal administration..

"The panchayat was destroyed by the East India Company when it was granted the office of Diwan in 1765 in Bengal by the Mughal Emperor as part of reparation after his defeat at Buxar. As Diwan the Company took two decisions. The first was that it abolished the village land record office and created a company official called Patwari. The Patwari became the official record keeper for a number of villages. The second was the creation of the office of magistrate and the abolition of village police. The magistrate carried out policing functions through the Darogha who had always been a state functionary under the Faujdar. The primary purpose of these measures was the collection of land revenue by fiat. The depredations of the Patwari and the Darogha are part of our folklore and it led to the worst famine in Bengal. The effects of the famine lingered right to the end of the 18th century. These two measures completely disempowered the village community and destroyed the panchayat. After 1857 the British tried to restore the panchayat by giving it powers to try minor offences and to resolve village disputes. But these measures never restored the lost powers of the village community."[citation needed]

From 1870 that Viceroy Lord Mayo's Resolution (for decentralization of power to bring about administrative efficiency in meeting people's demand and to add to the finances of colonial regime) gave the needed impetus to the development of local institutions. It was a landmark in the evolution of colonial policy towards local government. The real bench marking of the government policy on decentralization can, however, be attributed to Lord Ripon who, in his famous resolution on local self-government on May 18, 1882, recognized the twin considerations of local government: (i) administrative efficiency and (ii) political education. The Ripon Resolution, which focused on towns, provided for local bodies consisting of a large majority of elected non-official members and presided over by a non-official chairperson. This resolution met with resistance from colonial administrators. The progress of local self-government was tardy with only half- hearted steps taken in setting up municipal bodies. Rural decentralization remained a neglected area of administrative reform.

The Royal Commission on Decentralization (1907) under the chairmanship of C.E.H. Hobhouse recognized the importance of panchayats at the village level. The commission recommended that "it is most desirable, alike in the interests of decentralization and in order to associate the people with the local tasks of administration, that an attempt should be made to constitute and develop village panchayats for the administration of local village affairs".[4]

But, the Montague-Chemsford reforms (1919) brought local self-government as a provincial transferred subject, under the domain of Indian ministers in the provinces. Due to organisational and fiscal constraints, the reform was unable to make panchayat institutions truly democratic and vibrant. However, the most significant development of this period was the 'establishment of village panchayats in a number of provinces, that were no longer mere ad hoc judicial tribunal, but representative institutions symbolising the corporate character of the village and having a wide jurisdiction in respect of civic matters'. l By 1925, eight provinces had passed panchayat acts and by 1926, six native states had also passed panchayat laws.

The provincial autonomy under the Government of India Act, 1935, marked the evolution of panchayats in India. Popularly elected governments in provinces enacted legislations to further democratize institutions of local self-government. But the system of responsible government at the grassroots level was least responsible. D.P. Mishra, the then minister for local self-government under the Government of India Act of 1935 in Central Provinces was of the view that 'the working of our local bodies... in our province and perhaps in the whole country presents a tragic picture... 'Inefficiency' and 'local body' have become synonymous terms....'.[5]

In spite of various committees such as the Royal Commission on Decentralization (1907), the report of Montague and Chemsford on constitutional reform (1919), the Government of India Resolution (1919), etc., a hierarchical administrative structure based on supervision and control evolved. The administrator became the focal point of rural governance. The British were not concerned with decentralized democracy but were aiming for colonial objectives.[6]

The Indian National Congress from the 1920s to 1947, emphasized the issue of all-India Swaraj, and organized movements for Independence under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. The task of preparing any sort of blueprint for the local level was neglected as a result. There was no consensus among the top leaders regarding the status and role to be assigned to the institution of rural local self-government; rather there were divergent views on the subject. On the one end Gandhi favoured Village Swaraj and strengthening the village panchayat to the fullest extent and on the other end, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar opposed this idea. He believed that the village represented regressive India, a source of oppression. The model state hence had to build safeguards against such social oppression and the only way it could be done was through the adoption of the parliamentary model of politics [7] During the drafting of the Constitution of India, Panchayati Raj Institutions were placed in the non-justiciable part of the Constitution, the Directive Principles of State Policy, as Article 40. The Article read 'the State shall take steps to organize village panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self-government'. However, no worthwhile legislation was enacted either at the national or state level to implement it.

In the four decades since the adoption of the Constitution, panchayat raj institutions have travelled from the non-justiciable part of the Constitution to one where, through a separate amendment, a whole new status has been added to their history [8]

Dual gvt bengal

BENGAL

THE DUAL GOVERNMENT OF BENGAL Following the Treaty of Allahabad (1765), Robert Clive set up the infamous dual system of administration in Bengal wherein the Com­pany acquired the real power, while the. responsibility of administration rested on the Nawab of Bengal. Under the 'dual' or double government system, the Company got both the diwani (revenue) and nizamat (civil administration) functions of Bengal from two different sources-diwani from the Mughal emperor and nizamat from the nawab of Bengal.

As the diwan, the Company was authorised to collect revenues of the province, while through the right to nominate the deputy subahdar it was in a position to control the nizamat or the police and judicial powers. The deputy subahdar could not be removed without the consent of the Company. However, at this point of time, the Company was neither willing nor able to collect the revenue directly.

Hence, it appointed two deputy diwans for exercising diwani functions-Mohammad Reza Khan for Bengal and Raja Sitah Roy for Bihar. Mohammad Reza Khan also functioned as deputy nizam. In this way, the whole administration of Bengal was exercised through Indian agency, although the actual authority rested with the Company.
The dual government system held a great advantage for the British-they had power without responsibility. The Nawab and his officials were responsible for administration, but they had no power to discharge it.

The system had many weaknesses that ultimately led to administrative breakdown. The peasantry of Bengal suffered greatly due to the decline of agriculture and arbitrary revenue demands. Trade and commerce were disrupted, and the industry and skills ruined. .

Sujata at 12:05 AM

Power of usa vice president

Ideally he is the speaker of the upper house just like the indian vice president.  And similarly he becomes the acting president just in case anything happens  to donald trump.

Ambedkar in case of the indian president had commented that there are no similarities except than the names of their designation. However in case of vice president all aspects are same.

The president of the United States has essentially unconstrained authority to use nuclear weapons however he sees fit.

So what would happen if the president, in the judgment of those closest to him, were to … not be in his right mind?

In such a scenario, there is, in fact, something that could quickly and legally be done to avert global catastrophe. The answer lies in Section 4 of the 25th Amendment to the Constitution.

The amendment states that if, for whatever reason, the vice president and a majority of sitting Cabinet secretaries decide that the president is “unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office,” they can simply put that down in writing and send it to two people — the speaker of the House and the Senate’s president pro tem.

Then the vice president would immediately become “Acting President,” and take over all the president’s powers.

Let that sink in — one vice president and any eight Cabinet officers can, theoretically, decide to knock the president out of power at any time.

If the president wants to dispute this move, he can, but then it would be up to Congress to settle the matter with a vote. A two-thirds majority in both houses would be necessary to keep the vice president in charge. If that threshold isn’t reached, the president would regain his powers.

Section 4 of the 25th Amendment has never been invoked in reality, though it’s a staple of thriller fiction. But there’s been a sudden surge of interest in it in recent months, as reports of Donald Trump’s bizarre behavior behind closed doors have been piling up, and there is increasingly unsubtle speculation in Washington about the health of the president’s mind.

Whatever the current circumstances, an enormous amount rests on any president of the United States’ physical and mental health. The 25th Amendment exists as a failsafe that can be used if any president truly does appear to be unwell — as long as the people involved have the courage to actually go through with it, and the competence to carry it out without causing an even greater disaster

.
The framers of the Constitution were farsighted about many things, but presidential succession was not among them. The text was vague on several matters, including on whether the vice president fully becomes president if the sitting president dies or resigns (in practice, the answer was interpreted as “yes”), and on how to fill a vice presidential vacancy in the middle of a term (in practice, the answer was interpreted as “you can’t”).

Most interestingly for our purposes, the Constitution’s original text states that a president could be removed from office for “inability” but gives zero specifics about how this would actually be determined or carried out. So when President James Garfield was bedridden after being shot and President Woodrow Wilson was debilitated by a stroke, they simply lingered on in the presidency without doing very much for months, because no one knew what else could be done while they were still drawing breath.

These scenarios may not have been so bad in the United States of the 1790s, but by the mid-20th century the country had become a global superpower, and modern communication tools created omnipresent demands for presidential decisions and actions.

The chaos and instability that followed John F. Kennedy’s assassination finally spurred Congress to move toward solving these problems. For once, it moved quickly, passing what became the 25th Amendment to the Constitution in 1965 and winning its ratification in the states by 1967.

The new amendment cleared up that yes, if a president died or resigned or was convicted of impeachment crimes, the vice president would fully become president. It provided, finally, for a simple way to fill a vacant vice presidency — the president nominates someone, and both Houses of Congress take a vote. It allowed for a president laid low by surgery or injury to voluntarily transfer his powers to the vice president and then easily get them back with a written declaration that he was healthy again.

And then there’s Section 4 — which is about how the vice president and a majority of the Cabinet can deprive the president of his powers without his consent.

2) Wait, the VP and Cabinet can depose the president?

Sort of. There are three major parts to Section 4 of the 25th Amendment. The first part establishes how a president can be quickly stripped of his powers due to inability.

1935 elections imp

Circumstances at the time of Election

As per the Congress, the act had more enemies than friends. In words of J L Nehru, it had all brakes not engine. The Federal provisions had already been condemned by all the political parties including the Congress and the Muslim League.

The Only parties to declare themselves in favor of the working of the Act of 1935, both in the provinces and the Central were —National Liberal Federation and Hindu Mahasabha.

In due course of time, the urge to fight the elections grew among them Congressmen. In 1936, When Congress met at Faizpur, the president of the session was Jawahar Lal Nehru. He said that

“there was no choice but to contest the elections as it would educate the masses on the political policies and economic programmes of the party”.

In the Faizpur session, there was a general opposition to the proposed federal portion, safeguards and Governor General’s overriding powers. So, the resolution of the congress was “not to submit to this constitution or to cooperate with it, but to combat it both inside and outside the legislatures so that it can be ended.”

But the provincial portion of the act was accepted. The Congress launched the Election campaign and in its manifesto the top thing was “A demand for the Constituent Assembly“.

In the same year 1936, Jinnah was elected president of the Muslim League. Thus the Muslim league which was up till now was in moribund state got a fresh lease of life. The Muslim league appointed a Central parliamentary board to direct the elections.

Elections and Results

The Congress swept the polls. It won absolute majority in 5 provinces viz. Madras, United Provinces, Central provinces, Bihar & Orissa, Bombay, Assam and North West Frontier Province it emerged at the largest political party and formed the governments. Later Assam and NWFP also came under Congress rule.

In Bengal, Punjab and Sind, Congress had no majority.

In Punjab, the Muslim League with Unionist Party formed a coalition government. However, later a faction of Unionist Party in the premiership of Sikandar Hayat Khan mixed up with the Muslim league and remained so till 1947.

In Bengal, Muslim league formed a coalition government with Krishak Praja Party under Fazlul Haq.

In Sindh, during 1937-1947, two leaders remained premiers viz. Ghulam Hussain Hidayutulla and Alla Bakhsh. They were non congress leaders.

The Muslim league got 108 sats out of the total 485 Muslim Seats. Congress contested on 58 Muslim seats and won 26 seats out of them.

Congress remained in office for more than two years. Under this tenure, Tenancy acts were passes un United Provinces and Bihar, to protect the tenants from the moneylenders. They took pro-labor stand but remained away from the class struggle.

In 1937, the Congress Government in Bombay appointed a Textile Inquiry Committee which recommended a wage increase for labor.

In November 1938, the Congress Government in Bombay introduced the “Industrial Disputes Act”. The act was based upon the principles of arbitrage and avoided the strikes and lock outs.

In these two years Congress did all that lifted its image from a political party to a party that can lead the masses of India not only in protests but also in Governance. The Ministers of Congress traveled in second and third class of railways and voluntarily reduced their salaries by Rs. 500 per month.

Rise of Separatism

In 1937, after the Provincial elections, the Congress had refused to make coalition Governments with the Muslim league. This gave the Muslim League leaders an opportunity to accuse the ministries of oppressing the Muslims. Apart from that, Muslim League had the view that it alone had the right to contact with the Muslims and take care of them. When Congress started mass contacts in villages, the Muslim league did not approve it.

A dream was shown to the middle and lower class Muslims of the country that if they remain in united country, they will always be unable to compete with the Kafirs who will not allow them to get the higher jobs and prospects. If a separate sovereign state is created, then it would be the middle and lower class Muslims that would get the most benefit.

There was one more reason of a press for separate Muslim nation. It was the Wardha Scheme of Education, which led the Muslim league to champion for the cause of Pakistan.

• DNA and RNA are two types of nucleic acid.
• Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles, including a nucleus. Eukaryotes can be single-celled or multi-celled, such as you, me, plants, fungi, and insects. Bacteria are an example ofprokaryotes. Prokaryotic cells do not contain a nucleus or any other membrane-bound organelle.
  Proteins

  Proteins are polymers of amino acids; proteins typically make up about half of the total weight of the biomolecules in a cell excluding water. Proteins play a wide variety of role such as:

  • Enzymes: in the form of catalyst.
  • Structural material: in the form of keratin (protein found in hair and nails).
  • Contraction: as actin and myosin fibers that interact in muscle tissues for contraction and relaxation.
  • Signalling : Hormones such as insulin that regulate sugar level in blood

  
  

Meosis vs mitosis- me aaio sis -- this is infusion of gamettes 

mitosis -- is cellular division of the same cell

Rhizophora is a genus of tropical mangrove trees, sometimes collectively called true mangroves. The most notable species is the red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) but some other species and a few natural hybrids are known. Rhizophora species generally live in intertidal zones which are indundated daily by the ocean. They exhibit a number of adaptations to this environment, including -pneutomatophores that elevate the plants above the water and allow them to respire oxygen even while their lower roots are submerged, and a cytological molecular "pump" mechanism that allows them to remove excess salts from their cells. The generic name is derived from the Greek words ριζα (rhiza), meaning "root," and φορος (phoros), meaning "bearing," referring to the stilt-roots.^[2]

sta + Men ==male part

Stigma ==because thats how society always blames women

The pericardium (from the Greek περί, "around" and κάρδιον, "heart") is a double-walled sac containing the heart and the roots of the great vessels. The pericardial sac has two layers, a serous layer and a fibrous layer. It encloses the pericardial cavity which containspericardial fluid.

• In the anterior side there is a right atrium and a left atrium.
• In the posterior side of the heart there is a right ventricle and a left ventricle persist.

• Between the right atrium and the right ventricle there is a tricuspid valve.

• In the vein there is impure blood i.e. carbon dioxide mixed blood.
• Pulmonary vein is the exception which always carries pure blood.
• Pulmonary vein carries the blood from lungs to left atrium. It has pure blood.

• Artery is the vessel which carries the blood from the heart towards the body.
• In artery there is pure blood i.e. oxygen mixed blood.
• But Pulmonary arteries are exception which always carries the impure blood.
• Pulmonary artery carries the blood from right ventricle to lungs. It contains impure blood.
• In the right part of the heart, there remains impure blood i.e. carbon dioxide mixed blood and in the left part of the heart there remains pure blood i.e. oxygen mixed blood.
• The artery carrying blood to the muscles of the heart is called coronary arteries. Any type of hindrance in it causes heart attack.

blood Pressure:

• The force that blood exerts against the wall of blood carrying tube is called blood pressure.
• High in tubes which carry blood to the body parts (systolic pressure).
• Low in tubes which carry blood to the heart (diastolic pressure).
• The average blood pressure is 120-80mm Hg.

 

Heart Attack: It is caused due to sudden decrease in blood  supply to heart which leads to the damage of heart muscles.

• In mouth there are Salivary gland which secrets the Saliva in mouth in which two types of enzymes are found, ptyalin and maltase.
• These enzymes convert the simple sugar and make it digestible.
• Around 1.5 litre of saliva is secreted in human on an average day, it is acidic in nature (pH 6.8)
• As the food reaches in the stomach gastric glands secretes the gastric juice, this is a light yellow acidic acid.
• Hydrochloric acid secreted from the Oxyntic cells of the stomach kills all the bacteria coming with food the; and accelerates the reaction of enzymes.
• Hydrochloric acid makes the food acidic by which ptyalin reaction of the saliva end.

• As the food reaches the duodenum bile juice form the liver combines with it.
• Main function of the bile juice is to convert the acidic food into alkaline, as it is alkaline in nature.
• Pancreatic juice form pancreas combines with food and it contains the following enzymes:

1. Trypsin: It converts the protein and peptone into polypeptides and amino acid.
2. Amylase: It converts the starch into soluble sugar.
3. Lipase: It converts the emulsified fats into glycerol and fatty acids.

The small intestine is a muscular tube with three parts. The duodenum breaks down the food. The jejunum and the ileum absorb nutrients and send them into the bloodstream. The inner lining of the small intestine is folded back and forth to increase surface area for better nutrient absorption. These folds create microscopic finger-like projections that are called villi. The small intestine does its job so well, over 95 percent of ingested carbohydrates and proteins are absorbed.

•  are lungs, which carry out this exchange of gases as we breathe.
• All those organs comes under respiratory system which help in exchange of  gases are – Nasal passage, Pharynx, Larynx or Voice box, Trachea, Bronchi, Bronchioles, Lungs etc.

Nasal passage :

• Nasal passage is a channel for air flow through the nose and its inner wall is lined with mucous membrane.
• Mucous contains innumerable tiny hair like cell that  prevents the particles of sand, bacteria or other small organisms from entering into the body.
• Mucous makes the air wet entering into the body and equalises it with the temperature of the body.

Pharynx:

• Muscular membranous channel connecting the nasal cavity to the larynx and the oral cavity to the esophagus; it enables breathing, ingestion of food and speech.

Larynx or Voice box :

• The part of the respiratory system which connects the pharynx with trachea is called Larynx or voice box and it main function is to produce sound.
• At the larynx entrance gate there is a thin blade-like door, which is called epiglottis which ensure that the larynx closes during the food intake so that food cannot enter the respiratory system .

Trachea:

• It enters into the thoracic cavity and divided into two bronchi i.e. right and left.
• Right bronchi enter into the right lungs after being divided into three branches.
•  Left bronchi enter into the left lungs after being divided into only two branches.

Lungs:

• The structure of lung is like sponge and its colour is  red.
•  There are two lungs in the thoracic cavity i.e. right lung and left lung.
•  Each lung is surrounded by a membrane which is called pleural membrane.
• Size of right lung is greater in comparison to left lung.

 Blood is a type of tissue of our body that contains cells, chemicals, and other substances. Now on to the other two questions.

Formed Elements

About 45% of our blood is composed of what we refer to as formed elements. You likely call them blood cells. There are different types of blood cells found in our blood. Let's look at those now.

The first type of blood cells are the erythrocytes, or as they are commonly called, red blood cells or RBCs. These are the most numerous of the three types of blood cells. RBCs have the job of transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide. There are approximately 4.2 to 6.2 million RBCs per cubic mm of blood at any given point in time.

The next type of blood cell is the leukocyte, also known as white blood cells or WBCs. These are members of our body's defense team since they protect us from invading bacteria and other pathogens. There are anywhere from 5,000 to 9,000 per cubic mm of blood.

Not all leukocytes are the same. There are 5 different WBCs. The majority of our WBCs are neutrophils, making up around 65% of the WBCs. Lymphocytes make up 25% of the WBCs, and monocytes make up about 5%. Small amounts of eosinophils and basophils are also found in the blood, making up 4% and 1%, respectively.

The last of the 3 blood cell types are the thrombocytes, commonly referred to as platelets. These are also the tiniest of the blood cells. Platelets work in the body to help stop the bleeding whenever a blood vessel is damaged. We have 140,000 to 340,000 platelets per cubic mm of blood.

Plasma

The other 55% of our blood is composed of plasma. Plasma is the liquid portion of blood. Since this portion is liquid, you probably have figured out that the main component in plasma is water. Water makes up about 90% of the plasma. So, what is in the other 10% of the plasma?

Well, proteins make about 8% of plasma. There are 4 different types of proteins in the plasma. The most abundant of the plasma proteins at 57% are albumins. It is responsible for helping to maintain blood volume. Globulins are another plasma protein. They make up 38% of the proteins in the plasma, and they work with the WBCs. Fibrinogen at 4% and prothrombin at 1% are the final 2 plasma proteins, and they help in the clotting process.

The smallest portion of the blood plasma is made up of an assortment of different solids. These make up the remaining 3% of the plasma. Some solids you'll find in the plasma are ions, or electrolytes, such as potassium, sodium, and calcium. Various nutrients needed by the body - like glucose, amino acids, and lipids - and waste products from metabolism - like urea, uric acid, and creatinine - are also found in the plasma. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are the blood gases which are found in the plasma as well. The last of the solids are hormones. There are a wide assortment of hormones released by various glands in the body that are transported in the plasma of the blood.

Virgins are unsaturated...not saturated therefore virgin olive oil conatins unsaturated fats which are good for health